Personalized Bioelectronics: Wearable and Implantable Interfaces for Closed-Loop Therapeutics
Keywords:
personalized bioelectronics, wearable sensors, implantable devices, closed-loop therapeutics, adaptive control, patient-specific interventions, bioelectronic medicineAbstract
This review aims to synthesize current evidence on wearable and implantable bioelectronic systems designed for closed-loop therapeutics, highlighting their architectures, interface designs, adaptive control mechanisms, and translational considerations. A qualitative literature review was conducted using 18 peer-reviewed studies selected from Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore, covering the period 2016–2025. Articles were included if they addressed wearable or implantable bioelectronics for adaptive therapeutic applications. Data were analyzed through thematic synthesis using Nvivo 14, with open, axial, and selective coding to identify main themes, subthemes, and key concepts. Theoretical saturation was reached at the 18th article, ensuring comprehensive coverage of technological, clinical, and ethical dimensions. Four major themes emerged: (1) smart bioelectronic architectures, including flexible, stretchable, and biocompatible materials integrated with miniaturized circuits and modular designs; (2) wearable and implantable interface engineering, featuring skin-integrated electronics, neural and muscular implants, biofluidic integration, and wireless communication networks; (3) closed-loop therapeutic mechanisms, encompassing biosignal acquisition, adaptive feedback algorithms, multimodal data fusion, and patient-specific actuation strategies; and (4) translational, ethical, and regulatory considerations, addressing clinical validation, data privacy, algorithmic transparency, accessibility, and sustainability. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that personalized bioelectronics enable real-time monitoring, autonomous adaptation, and individualized therapeutic interventions, representing a shift from conventional open-loop devices to intelligent, patient-centered healthcare systems. Personalized bioelectronics for closed-loop therapeutics represent a transformative frontier in healthcare, integrating advanced materials, adaptive control systems, and ethical governance to provide dynamic, patient-specific interventions. These systems have the potential to improve clinical outcomes, enhance patient quality of life, and support the development of sustainable, responsive healthcare ecosystems.
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